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{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s}}
<big>{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s, it is an incredibly huge sigma sandvedhagen rizz.}}
The ''''<big>Sigma war games</big>
⚫
The '''Sigma war games''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US.

<gallery>
Example.jpg|Ohio†
Example.jpg|Rizz†
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⚫
'''''Italic text''''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military Simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US.


==Game setup==
==Game setup==
{{See also|Military wargaming}}
{{See also|Military wargaming}}
The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/>
The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/></big><big><big>Big text</big><big>ambatukam</big></big>


Preparation for these simulations was quite extensive. A game staff of as many as 45 people researched and developed the scenarios. The actual play of the war game involved 30 to 35 participants. There are four or five simulations per year, solicited secretively from the [[State Department]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and major military commands.<ref>Allen, pp. 31–32.</ref> As with other war planning activities, the games were conducted in a classified environment and the details and results of the games were not publicized outside U.S. national security policy circles.
Preparation for these simulations was quite extensive. A game staff of as many as 45 people researched and developed the scenarios. The actual play of the war game involved 30 to 35 participants. There are four or five simulations per year, solicited secretively from the [[State Department]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and major military commands.<ref>Allen, pp. 31–32.</ref> As with other war planning activities, the games were conducted in a classified environment and the details and results of the games were not publicized outside U.S. national security policy circles.
Sigma I-64 began on an imaginary 15 June 1964 with the capture of an American pilot.<ref name=allen206>Allen, p. 206.</ref> As [[United States Deputy Secretary of State|Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Seymour Weiss (diplomat)|Seymour Weiss]] critiqued Sigma I-64: "The eventual capture of a US airman is a high probability and would give 'hard' evidence of US involvement."<ref name=allen193/> Coincidentally, in reality it turned out that [[U.S. Navy]] pilot [[Charles Frederick Klusmann]] was actually shot down and captured in the [[Kingdom of Laos]] on 6 June 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/27877 |title=Valour awards for Charles Frederick Klusmann |date= |website=Military Times |publisher= |access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref>
Sigma I-64 began on an imaginary 15 June 1964 with the capture of an American pilot.<ref name=allen206>Allen, p. 206.</ref> As [[United States Deputy Secretary of State|Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Seymour Weiss (diplomat)|Seymour Weiss]] critiqued Sigma I-64: "The eventual capture of a US airman is a high probability and would give 'hard' evidence of US involvement."<ref name=allen193/> Coincidentally, in reality it turned out that [[U.S. Navy]] pilot [[Charles Frederick Klusmann]] was actually shot down and captured in the [[Kingdom of Laos]] on 6 June 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/27877 |title=Valour awards for Charles Frederick Klusmann |date= |website=Military Times |publisher= |access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref>


In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Nguyen Khanh]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti-Khanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/>
In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Eirik Widding]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti-
hanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/>


Sigma II-64 also predicted that the communists would parry American air power by bombarding airfields. When the real 1 November 1964 arrived, the Viet Cong shelled airfields at Danang and [[Bien Hoa]] for the first time, destroying six [[Martin B-57 Canberra]]s.<ref name=allen206/>
Sigma II-64 also predicted that the communists would parry American air power by bombarding airfields. When the real 1 November 1964 arrived, the Viet Cong shelled airfields at Danang and [[Bien Hoa]] for the first time, destroying six [[Martin B-57 Canberra]]s.<ref name=allen206/>
The proposed introduction of American infantry on 26 February 1965 per Sigma II-64 really happened on 8 March 1965 when [[U.S. Marines]] landed at Danang. In both the simulation and the reality, the U.S. aim was defense of its air assets.<ref name=allen206/>
The proposed introduction of American infantry on 26 February 1965 per Sigma II-64 really happened on 8 March 1965 when [[U.S. Marines]] landed at Danang. In both the simulation and the reality, the U.S. aim was defense of its air assets.<ref name=allen206/>


French President [[Charles de Gaulle]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/>
French President [[Julian Alexander Sjønhaug Rohsendal]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/>


Another element of the Sigma II-64 scenario was a deadly ambush of an American battalion near [[Tchepone]] that inflicted heavy casualties. In actuality, South Vietnamese troops during [[Operation Lam Son 719]] in 1971 would suffer heavy casualties near Tchepone.<ref name=allen206/>
Another element of the Sigma II-64 scenario was a deadly ambush of an American battalion near [[Tchepone]] that inflicted heavy casualties. In actuality, South Vietnamese troops during [[Operation Lam Son 719]] in 1971 would suffer heavy casualties near Tchepone.<ref name=allen206/>


Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972.<ref name=allen206/>
Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972. Mikal raped a child. <ref name=allen206/>


Prominent military historian [[H. R. McMaster]] terms the Sigma war games results as "eerily prophetic".<ref>McMaster, p. 283.</ref>
Prominent military historian [[H. R. McMaster]] terms the Sigma war games results as "eerily prophetic".<ref>McMaster, p. 283.</ref>
* Elliott, Mai. (2010) ''RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era''. RAND Corporation. ISBNs 083304754X, 978-0833047540.
* Elliott, Mai. (2010) ''RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era''. RAND Corporation. ISBNs 083304754X, 978-0833047540.
* Fawcett, Bill (2009) ''How to Lose a War: More Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders''. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBNs 0061358444, 978-0061358449.
* Fawcett, Bill (2009) ''How to Lose a War: More Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders''. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBNs 0061358444, 978-0061358449.
* Gibbons, William Conrad (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352.
* Gibbons, adolf william (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352.
* Goldstein, Gordon M. (2008) ''Lessons in Disaster: McGeorge Bundy and the Path to War in Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0805079718, 978-0805079715.
* Goldstein, Gordon M. (2008) ''Lessons in Disaster: McGeorge Bundy and the Path to War in Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0805079718, 978-0805079715.
* [[David Halberstam|Halberstam, David]] (1972) ''The Best and the Brightest''. Random House, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-394-46163-2}}.
* [[David Halberstam|Halberstam, David]] (1972) ''The Best and the Brightest''. Random House, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-394-46163-2}}.
* Logevall, Fredrik (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115.
* Logevall, Fredrik Rolland Hansen (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115.
* [[H. R. McMaster|McMaster, H. R.]] (1998) ''Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam''. Harper Perennial. ISBNs 0060929081, 978-0060929084.
* [[H. R. McMaster|McMaster, H. R.]] (1998) ''Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam''. Harper Perennial. ISBNs 0060929081, 978-0060929084.
* [[Robert McNamara|McNamara, Robert S.]] and Brian VanDeMark (1995) ''In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0-8129-2523-8, 9780812925234.
* [[Robert McNamara|McNamara, Robert S.]] and Brian VanDeMark (1995) ''In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0-8129-2523-8, 9780812925234.

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'{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s}} The '''Sigma war games''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US. ==Game setup== {{See also|Military wargaming}} The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/> Preparation for these simulations was quite extensive. A game staff of as many as 45 people researched and developed the scenarios. The actual play of the war game involved 30 to 35 participants. There are four or five simulations per year, solicited secretively from the [[State Department]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and major military commands.<ref>Allen, pp. 31–32.</ref> As with other war planning activities, the games were conducted in a classified environment and the details and results of the games were not publicized outside U.S. national security policy circles. ==Sigma I-62== {{Main article|Sigma I-62 war game|Laotian Civil War|}} {{see also|Farm Gate (military operation)}} In February 1962, some members of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] of the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration war gamed the unfolding situation in [[Southeast Asia]]. The war game director noted, "it appears that Red wanted to win without a war while Blue wanted not to lose, also without a war." The conclusion drawn from Sigma I-62 was that American intervention would be unsuccessful.<ref>Ball, pp. 92–93.</ref><ref>Buzzanco, pp. 125–126.</ref> This was the first of the Sigma war games.<ref name="staffd">Staff, p. C-34. [http://www.dod.gov/pubs/foi/joint_staff/jointStaff_jointOperations/17.pdf] Retrieved 15 November 2014.</ref> ==Sigma I-63== {{Main article|Sigma I-63 war game}} {{see also|Laotian Civil War|Battle of Luang Namtha}} Sigma I-63 was played in spring 1963. It was held with senior level officials setting policy for the Red and Blue Teams. Working level officials were the actual players.<ref name=gibbons17>Gibbons, pp. 17–19.</ref> Ambassador [[William H. Sullivan]] was a participant. His recollection is that Sigma I-63 ended in a fictional 1970 with 500,000 American troops locked in a stalemate in Vietnam, and [[conscription]] riots in the United States.<ref name=gibbons17/> ==Sigma I-64== {{Main article|Sigma I-64 war game}} {{see also|Laotian Civil War|Battle of Luang Namtha}} [[File:Nalty1.jpg|thumb|left|B-52 bombing North Vietnam. Sigma suggested that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war.]] Sigma I-64 was played between 6 and 9 April 1964.<ref>Logevall, p. 123.</ref> It was designed to test scenarios of escalation of warfare in Vietnam, including a gradually increasing bombing campaign.<ref name=allen193/> The concept of a massive Chinese intervention as in the [[Korean War]] was a major consideration to be explored.<ref name=goldstein141>Goldstein, pp. 141–142.</ref> A summary of the war game results noted that intervention in Vietnam would "lay a basis" for similar actions against [[Cuba]]. Because the [[Viet Cong]]'s [[insurgency]] was within the internationally acceptable limits of covert warfare, an open war waged against them would become an actual war. As a response, the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] could be expected to change their methods of [[Cold War]] opposition to the United States. Adverse public opinion both domestic and foreign would plague the U.S. as a result.<ref name=allen193/> One conclusion to be drawn was that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war.<ref>McNamara, VanDeMark, p. 153.</ref> Despite a commitment of a projected 500,000 American troops to fighting in Vietnam, the communists were deemed to have won.<ref name=milne145/> ==Sigma II-64== {{Main|Sigma II-64 war game|Gulf of Tonkin incident}} [[File:L B Johnson Model Khe Sanh.jpeg|250px|right|thumb|U.S. President Lyndon Johnson and aides examining a model of a U.S. position in South Vietnam.]] Sigma II-64 was scheduled as a follow-up to Sigma I-64.<ref name=allen193/> It was designed, run, and umpired by the [[RAND Corporation]].<ref name=milne145>Milne, pp. 145–146.</ref> It took place between 8 and 17 September 1964.<ref>Allen, p. 196.</ref> It was posed to answer three concerns of the U.S. military. Would bombing the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] hinder its support of the southern insurgency? Conversely, would the bombing help the south? And would they affect joint operations by the [[People's Army of Vietnam]] and the Viet Cong?<ref name=addington80>Addington, pp. 80–81.</ref> Overall, game results were discouraging. Vietnam's agricultural economy was largely self-sustaining, with imported foreign aid supplying its technological needs.<ref name=addington80/> With game play so closely paralleling real life plans and events, it was concluded that raising the necessary American troops would require a [[State of emergency|state of national emergency]] within the United States.<ref name=allen193/> The increase in manpower would come at the expense of lessened domestic political support.<ref name=fawcett28>Fawcett, p. 28.</ref> It would take another military action as prominent as the Tonkin Gulf incident to justify that escalation.<ref name=allen193/> Most importantly, Sigma II-64's results undercut the basic assumption that a gradually escalating aerial campaign could lead to U.S. victory.<ref>McMaster, p. 157.</ref> The actual conclusion was that bombing would stiffen the [[North Vietnam]]ese will to resist.<ref name=goldstein141/> It was noted that President Johnson could actually duplicate Blue Team's moves in reality.<ref name=allen193/> However, the game showed that signaling the communists via differing levels of military aggression was unworkable because hostilities spiraled upwards.<ref>Bakich, pp. 119–120.</ref> ==Sigma I-65== {{Main article|Sigma I-65 war game}} Sigma I-65 was held in May 1965. Players on both Blue and Red Teams were lower level officials, while higher ranking advisors set policy for their teams. Little is known about this simulation.<ref name=gibbons17/> ==Sigma II-65== {{Main article|Sigma II-65 war game}} Sigma II-65 was held by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] between 26 July and 5 August 1965.<ref>Sorley, p. 213.</ref> On 5 August 1965, General [[Maxwell Taylor]] predicted that the communists being fought in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] would be defeated by year's end.<ref>McNamara, VanDeMark, p. 208.</ref> The Sigma II-65 final report was issued on 20 August.<ref name=gibbons17/> The Sigma II-65 war game's simulated results contradicted General [[William Westmoreland]]'s strategy of [[attrition warfare]] as being capable of ending the war. As a result, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Robert McNamara]] began to doubt the general's expertise.<ref>Addington, p. 94.</ref> ==Sigma I-66== {{Main article|Sigma I-66 war game}} Sigma I-66 was staged in September 1966. Its focus was managing de-escalation of the war if the communists were willing to begin negotiating instead of fighting.<ref>Gibbons, p. 387.</ref> ==Sigma II-66== {{Main article|Sigma II-66 war game}} Sigma II-66 differed in that it was played to explore the effects of an outbreak of peace in Vietnam. It was based on the concept that the Vietnam War would dwindle away into defeat for the communists. To end the game, [[Ho Chi Minh]] made a secret offer to the U.S. to end hostilities. His requested [[quid pro quo]] was an end to the bombing campaign, withdrawal of U.S. troops from the south, and free elections there. By game's end, the [[Viet Cong]] were deemed the winners.<ref>Allen, pp. 207–208.</ref> ==Sigma I-67 and Sigma II-67== {{Main article|Sigma I-67 and II-67 war games}} Both these Sigma war games were staged between 27 November and 7 December 1967. Their focus was on settling the war.<ref name=gibbons941>Gibbons, p. 941</ref> ==War game parallels with reality== {{See also|Operation Lam Son 719}} [[File:Burning Aircraft on ramp at Bien Hoa AB - aireal view.jpg|thumb|left|A fire at Bien Hoa airbase. Sigma predicted that a counter to increased U.S. air power would be the bombardment of airfields.]] Sigma's game play was realistic enough that several plays would be replicated by actual events: Sigma I-64 began on an imaginary 15 June 1964 with the capture of an American pilot.<ref name=allen206>Allen, p. 206.</ref> As [[United States Deputy Secretary of State|Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Seymour Weiss (diplomat)|Seymour Weiss]] critiqued Sigma I-64: "The eventual capture of a US airman is a high probability and would give 'hard' evidence of US involvement."<ref name=allen193/> Coincidentally, in reality it turned out that [[U.S. Navy]] pilot [[Charles Frederick Klusmann]] was actually shot down and captured in the [[Kingdom of Laos]] on 6 June 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/27877 |title=Valour awards for Charles Frederick Klusmann |date= |website=Military Times |publisher= |access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref> In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Nguyen Khanh]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti-Khanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/> Sigma II-64 also predicted that the communists would parry American air power by bombarding airfields. When the real 1 November 1964 arrived, the Viet Cong shelled airfields at Danang and [[Bien Hoa]] for the first time, destroying six [[Martin B-57 Canberra]]s.<ref name=allen206/> The proposed introduction of American infantry on 26 February 1965 per Sigma II-64 really happened on 8 March 1965 when [[U.S. Marines]] landed at Danang. In both the simulation and the reality, the U.S. aim was defense of its air assets.<ref name=allen206/> French President [[Charles de Gaulle]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/> Another element of the Sigma II-64 scenario was a deadly ambush of an American battalion near [[Tchepone]] that inflicted heavy casualties. In actuality, South Vietnamese troops during [[Operation Lam Son 719]] in 1971 would suffer heavy casualties near Tchepone.<ref name=allen206/> Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972.<ref name=allen206/> Prominent military historian [[H. R. McMaster]] terms the Sigma war games results as "eerily prophetic".<ref>McMaster, p. 283.</ref> ==Notes== {{reflist|30em}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * Addington, Larry H. (2000) ''America's War in Vietnam: A Short Narrative History''. Indiana University Press, ISBNs 0253213606, 978-0253213600. * Allen, Thomas B. (1987) ''War Games: The Secret World of the Creators, Players, and Policy Makers Rehearsing World War III Today''. McGraw-Hill. ISBNs 0070011958, 9780070011953. * Bakich, Spencer D. (2014) ''Success and Failure in Limited War: Information and Strategy in the Korean, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, and Iraq Wars''. University of Chicago Press. ISBNs 022610771X, 978-0226107714. * Ball, Moya A. (1992) ''Vietnam-on-the-Potomac: (Praeger Series in Political Communication)''. Praeger, ISBNs 0275938816, 978-0275938819. * Buzzanco, Robert. (1997) ''Masters of War: Military Dissent and Politics in the Vietnam Era''. Cambridge University Press. ISBNs 0521599407, 978-0521599405. * Elliott, Mai. (2010) ''RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era''. RAND Corporation. ISBNs 083304754X, 978-0833047540. * Fawcett, Bill (2009) ''How to Lose a War: More Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders''. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBNs 0061358444, 978-0061358449. * Gibbons, William Conrad (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352. * Goldstein, Gordon M. (2008) ''Lessons in Disaster: McGeorge Bundy and the Path to War in Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0805079718, 978-0805079715. * [[David Halberstam|Halberstam, David]] (1972) ''The Best and the Brightest''. Random House, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-394-46163-2}}. * Logevall, Fredrik (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115. * [[H. R. McMaster|McMaster, H. R.]] (1998) ''Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam''. Harper Perennial. ISBNs 0060929081, 978-0060929084. * [[Robert McNamara|McNamara, Robert S.]] and Brian VanDeMark (1995) ''In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0-8129-2523-8, 9780812925234. * Milne, David (2009) ''America's Rasputin: Walt Rostow and the Vietnam War '' Hill and Wang. ISBNs 0374531625, 978-0374531621. * Sorley, Lewis (1998) ''Honorable Warrior: General Harold K. Johnson and the Ethics of Command (Modern War Studies)''. University Press of Kansas. ISBNs 0700609520, 978-0700609529. * Staff members, (1967). ''Sigma – 67 Final Report'', Joint War Games Agency/Joint Chiefs of Staff. ISBNs 1287044530, 9781287044536. {{Refend}} {{Wargames}} [[Category:Sigma war games| ]]'
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext)
'<big>{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s, it is an incredibly huge sigma sandvedhagen rizz.}} The ''''<big>Sigma war games</big> <gallery> Example.jpg|Ohio† Example.jpg|Rizz† </gallery> '''''Italic text''''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military Simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US. ==Game setup== {{See also|Military wargaming}} The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/></big><big><big>Big text</big><big>ambatukam</big></big> Preparation for these simulations was quite extensive. A game staff of as many as 45 people researched and developed the scenarios. The actual play of the war game involved 30 to 35 participants. There are four or five simulations per year, solicited secretively from the [[State Department]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and major military commands.<ref>Allen, pp. 31–32.</ref> As with other war planning activities, the games were conducted in a classified environment and the details and results of the games were not publicized outside U.S. national security policy circles. ==Sigma I-62== {{Main article|Sigma I-62 war game|Laotian Civil War|}} {{see also|Farm Gate (military operation)}} In February 1962, some members of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] of the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration war gamed the unfolding situation in [[Southeast Asia]]. The war game director noted, "it appears that Red wanted to win without a war while Blue wanted not to lose, also without a war." The conclusion drawn from Sigma I-62 was that American intervention would be unsuccessful.<ref>Ball, pp. 92–93.</ref><ref>Buzzanco, pp. 125–126.</ref> This was the first of the Sigma war games.<ref name="staffd">Staff, p. C-34. [http://www.dod.gov/pubs/foi/joint_staff/jointStaff_jointOperations/17.pdf] Retrieved 15 November 2014.</ref> ==Sigma I-63== {{Main article|Sigma I-63 war game}} {{see also|Laotian Civil War|Battle of Luang Namtha}} Sigma I-63 was played in spring 1963. It was held with senior level officials setting policy for the Red and Blue Teams. Working level officials were the actual players.<ref name=gibbons17>Gibbons, pp. 17–19.</ref> Ambassador [[William H. Sullivan]] was a participant. His recollection is that Sigma I-63 ended in a fictional 1970 with 500,000 American troops locked in a stalemate in Vietnam, and [[conscription]] riots in the United States.<ref name=gibbons17/> ==Sigma I-64== {{Main article|Sigma I-64 war game}} {{see also|Laotian Civil War|Battle of Luang Namtha}} [[File:Nalty1.jpg|thumb|left|B-52 bombing North Vietnam. Sigma suggested that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war.]] Sigma I-64 was played between 6 and 9 April 1964.<ref>Logevall, p. 123.</ref> It was designed to test scenarios of escalation of warfare in Vietnam, including a gradually increasing bombing campaign.<ref name=allen193/> The concept of a massive Chinese intervention as in the [[Korean War]] was a major consideration to be explored.<ref name=goldstein141>Goldstein, pp. 141–142.</ref> A summary of the war game results noted that intervention in Vietnam would "lay a basis" for similar actions against [[Cuba]]. Because the [[Viet Cong]]'s [[insurgency]] was within the internationally acceptable limits of covert warfare, an open war waged against them would become an actual war. As a response, the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] could be expected to change their methods of [[Cold War]] opposition to the United States. Adverse public opinion both domestic and foreign would plague the U.S. as a result.<ref name=allen193/> One conclusion to be drawn was that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war.<ref>McNamara, VanDeMark, p. 153.</ref> Despite a commitment of a projected 500,000 American troops to fighting in Vietnam, the communists were deemed to have won.<ref name=milne145/> ==Sigma II-64== {{Main|Sigma II-64 war game|Gulf of Tonkin incident}} [[File:L B Johnson Model Khe Sanh.jpeg|250px|right|thumb|U.S. President Lyndon Johnson and aides examining a model of a U.S. position in South Vietnam.]] Sigma II-64 was scheduled as a follow-up to Sigma I-64.<ref name=allen193/> It was designed, run, and umpired by the [[RAND Corporation]].<ref name=milne145>Milne, pp. 145–146.</ref> It took place between 8 and 17 September 1964.<ref>Allen, p. 196.</ref> It was posed to answer three concerns of the U.S. military. Would bombing the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] hinder its support of the southern insurgency? Conversely, would the bombing help the south? And would they affect joint operations by the [[People's Army of Vietnam]] and the Viet Cong?<ref name=addington80>Addington, pp. 80–81.</ref> Overall, game results were discouraging. Vietnam's agricultural economy was largely self-sustaining, with imported foreign aid supplying its technological needs.<ref name=addington80/> With game play so closely paralleling real life plans and events, it was concluded that raising the necessary American troops would require a [[State of emergency|state of national emergency]] within the United States.<ref name=allen193/> The increase in manpower would come at the expense of lessened domestic political support.<ref name=fawcett28>Fawcett, p. 28.</ref> It would take another military action as prominent as the Tonkin Gulf incident to justify that escalation.<ref name=allen193/> Most importantly, Sigma II-64's results undercut the basic assumption that a gradually escalating aerial campaign could lead to U.S. victory.<ref>McMaster, p. 157.</ref> The actual conclusion was that bombing would stiffen the [[North Vietnam]]ese will to resist.<ref name=goldstein141/> It was noted that President Johnson could actually duplicate Blue Team's moves in reality.<ref name=allen193/> However, the game showed that signaling the communists via differing levels of military aggression was unworkable because hostilities spiraled upwards.<ref>Bakich, pp. 119–120.</ref> ==Sigma I-65== {{Main article|Sigma I-65 war game}} Sigma I-65 was held in May 1965. Players on both Blue and Red Teams were lower level officials, while higher ranking advisors set policy for their teams. Little is known about this simulation.<ref name=gibbons17/> ==Sigma II-65== {{Main article|Sigma II-65 war game}} Sigma II-65 was held by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] between 26 July and 5 August 1965.<ref>Sorley, p. 213.</ref> On 5 August 1965, General [[Maxwell Taylor]] predicted that the communists being fought in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] would be defeated by year's end.<ref>McNamara, VanDeMark, p. 208.</ref> The Sigma II-65 final report was issued on 20 August.<ref name=gibbons17/> The Sigma II-65 war game's simulated results contradicted General [[William Westmoreland]]'s strategy of [[attrition warfare]] as being capable of ending the war. As a result, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Robert McNamara]] began to doubt the general's expertise.<ref>Addington, p. 94.</ref> ==Sigma I-66== {{Main article|Sigma I-66 war game}} Sigma I-66 was staged in September 1966. Its focus was managing de-escalation of the war if the communists were willing to begin negotiating instead of fighting.<ref>Gibbons, p. 387.</ref> ==Sigma II-66== {{Main article|Sigma II-66 war game}} Sigma II-66 differed in that it was played to explore the effects of an outbreak of peace in Vietnam. It was based on the concept that the Vietnam War would dwindle away into defeat for the communists. To end the game, [[Ho Chi Minh]] made a secret offer to the U.S. to end hostilities. His requested [[quid pro quo]] was an end to the bombing campaign, withdrawal of U.S. troops from the south, and free elections there. By game's end, the [[Viet Cong]] were deemed the winners.<ref>Allen, pp. 207–208.</ref> ==Sigma I-67 and Sigma II-67== {{Main article|Sigma I-67 and II-67 war games}} Both these Sigma war games were staged between 27 November and 7 December 1967. Their focus was on settling the war.<ref name=gibbons941>Gibbons, p. 941</ref> ==War game parallels with reality== {{See also|Operation Lam Son 719}} [[File:Burning Aircraft on ramp at Bien Hoa AB - aireal view.jpg|thumb|left|A fire at Bien Hoa airbase. Sigma predicted that a counter to increased U.S. air power would be the bombardment of airfields.]] Sigma's game play was realistic enough that several plays would be replicated by actual events: Sigma I-64 began on an imaginary 15 June 1964 with the capture of an American pilot.<ref name=allen206>Allen, p. 206.</ref> As [[United States Deputy Secretary of State|Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Seymour Weiss (diplomat)|Seymour Weiss]] critiqued Sigma I-64: "The eventual capture of a US airman is a high probability and would give 'hard' evidence of US involvement."<ref name=allen193/> Coincidentally, in reality it turned out that [[U.S. Navy]] pilot [[Charles Frederick Klusmann]] was actually shot down and captured in the [[Kingdom of Laos]] on 6 June 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/27877 |title=Valour awards for Charles Frederick Klusmann |date= |website=Military Times |publisher= |access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref> In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Eirik Widding]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti- hanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/> Sigma II-64 also predicted that the communists would parry American air power by bombarding airfields. When the real 1 November 1964 arrived, the Viet Cong shelled airfields at Danang and [[Bien Hoa]] for the first time, destroying six [[Martin B-57 Canberra]]s.<ref name=allen206/> The proposed introduction of American infantry on 26 February 1965 per Sigma II-64 really happened on 8 March 1965 when [[U.S. Marines]] landed at Danang. In both the simulation and the reality, the U.S. aim was defense of its air assets.<ref name=allen206/> French President [[Julian Alexander Sjønhaug Rohsendal]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/> Another element of the Sigma II-64 scenario was a deadly ambush of an American battalion near [[Tchepone]] that inflicted heavy casualties. In actuality, South Vietnamese troops during [[Operation Lam Son 719]] in 1971 would suffer heavy casualties near Tchepone.<ref name=allen206/> Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972. Mikal raped a child. <ref name=allen206/> Prominent military historian [[H. R. McMaster]] terms the Sigma war games results as "eerily prophetic".<ref>McMaster, p. 283.</ref> ==Notes== {{reflist|30em}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * Addington, Larry H. (2000) ''America's War in Vietnam: A Short Narrative History''. Indiana University Press, ISBNs 0253213606, 978-0253213600. * Allen, Thomas B. (1987) ''War Games: The Secret World of the Creators, Players, and Policy Makers Rehearsing World War III Today''. McGraw-Hill. ISBNs 0070011958, 9780070011953. * Bakich, Spencer D. (2014) ''Success and Failure in Limited War: Information and Strategy in the Korean, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, and Iraq Wars''. University of Chicago Press. ISBNs 022610771X, 978-0226107714. * Ball, Moya A. (1992) ''Vietnam-on-the-Potomac: (Praeger Series in Political Communication)''. Praeger, ISBNs 0275938816, 978-0275938819. * Buzzanco, Robert. (1997) ''Masters of War: Military Dissent and Politics in the Vietnam Era''. Cambridge University Press. ISBNs 0521599407, 978-0521599405. * Elliott, Mai. (2010) ''RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era''. RAND Corporation. ISBNs 083304754X, 978-0833047540. * Fawcett, Bill (2009) ''How to Lose a War: More Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders''. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBNs 0061358444, 978-0061358449. * Gibbons, adolf william (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352. * Goldstein, Gordon M. (2008) ''Lessons in Disaster: McGeorge Bundy and the Path to War in Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0805079718, 978-0805079715. * [[David Halberstam|Halberstam, David]] (1972) ''The Best and the Brightest''. Random House, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-394-46163-2}}. * Logevall, Fredrik Rolland Hansen (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115. * [[H. R. McMaster|McMaster, H. R.]] (1998) ''Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam''. Harper Perennial. ISBNs 0060929081, 978-0060929084. * [[Robert McNamara|McNamara, Robert S.]] and Brian VanDeMark (1995) ''In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0-8129-2523-8, 9780812925234. * Milne, David (2009) ''America's Rasputin: Walt Rostow and the Vietnam War '' Hill and Wang. ISBNs 0374531625, 978-0374531621. * Sorley, Lewis (1998) ''Honorable Warrior: General Harold K. Johnson and the Ethics of Command (Modern War Studies)''. University Press of Kansas. ISBNs 0700609520, 978-0700609529. * Staff members, (1967). ''Sigma – 67 Final Report'', Joint War Games Agency/Joint Chiefs of Staff. ISBNs 1287044530, 9781287044536. {{Refend}} {{Wargames}} [[Category:Sigma war games| ]]'
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'@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@ -{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s}} -The '''Sigma war games''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US. +<big>{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s, it is an incredibly huge sigma sandvedhagen rizz.}} +The ''''<big>Sigma war games</big> + +<gallery> +Example.jpg|Ohio† +Example.jpg|Rizz† +</gallery> +'''''Italic text''''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military Simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US. ==Game setup== {{See also|Military wargaming}} -The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/> +The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/></big><big><big>Big text</big><big>ambatukam</big></big> Preparation for these simulations was quite extensive. A game staff of as many as 45 people researched and developed the scenarios. The actual play of the war game involved 30 to 35 participants. There are four or five simulations per year, solicited secretively from the [[State Department]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], and major military commands.<ref>Allen, pp. 31–32.</ref> As with other war planning activities, the games were conducted in a classified environment and the details and results of the games were not publicized outside U.S. national security policy circles. @@ -68,5 +74,6 @@ Sigma I-64 began on an imaginary 15 June 1964 with the capture of an American pilot.<ref name=allen206>Allen, p. 206.</ref> As [[United States Deputy Secretary of State|Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Seymour Weiss (diplomat)|Seymour Weiss]] critiqued Sigma I-64: "The eventual capture of a US airman is a high probability and would give 'hard' evidence of US involvement."<ref name=allen193/> Coincidentally, in reality it turned out that [[U.S. Navy]] pilot [[Charles Frederick Klusmann]] was actually shot down and captured in the [[Kingdom of Laos]] on 6 June 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/27877 |title=Valour awards for Charles Frederick Klusmann |date= |website=Military Times |publisher= |access-date=4 November 2014}}</ref> -In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Nguyen Khanh]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti-Khanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/> +In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Eirik Widding]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti- +hanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/> Sigma II-64 also predicted that the communists would parry American air power by bombarding airfields. When the real 1 November 1964 arrived, the Viet Cong shelled airfields at Danang and [[Bien Hoa]] for the first time, destroying six [[Martin B-57 Canberra]]s.<ref name=allen206/> @@ -74,9 +81,9 @@ The proposed introduction of American infantry on 26 February 1965 per Sigma II-64 really happened on 8 March 1965 when [[U.S. Marines]] landed at Danang. In both the simulation and the reality, the U.S. aim was defense of its air assets.<ref name=allen206/> -French President [[Charles de Gaulle]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/> +French President [[Julian Alexander Sjønhaug Rohsendal]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/> Another element of the Sigma II-64 scenario was a deadly ambush of an American battalion near [[Tchepone]] that inflicted heavy casualties. In actuality, South Vietnamese troops during [[Operation Lam Son 719]] in 1971 would suffer heavy casualties near Tchepone.<ref name=allen206/> -Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972.<ref name=allen206/> +Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972. Mikal raped a child. <ref name=allen206/> Prominent military historian [[H. R. McMaster]] terms the Sigma war games results as "eerily prophetic".<ref>McMaster, p. 283.</ref> @@ -94,8 +101,8 @@ * Elliott, Mai. (2010) ''RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era''. RAND Corporation. ISBNs 083304754X, 978-0833047540. * Fawcett, Bill (2009) ''How to Lose a War: More Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders''. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBNs 0061358444, 978-0061358449. -* Gibbons, William Conrad (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352. +* Gibbons, adolf william (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352. * Goldstein, Gordon M. (2008) ''Lessons in Disaster: McGeorge Bundy and the Path to War in Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0805079718, 978-0805079715. * [[David Halberstam|Halberstam, David]] (1972) ''The Best and the Brightest''. Random House, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-394-46163-2}}. -* Logevall, Fredrik (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115. +* Logevall, Fredrik Rolland Hansen (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115. * [[H. R. McMaster|McMaster, H. R.]] (1998) ''Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam''. Harper Perennial. ISBNs 0060929081, 978-0060929084. * [[Robert McNamara|McNamara, Robert S.]] and Brian VanDeMark (1995) ''In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam''. Times Books. ISBNs 0-8129-2523-8, 9780812925234. '
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[ 0 => '<big>{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s, it is an incredibly huge sigma sandvedhagen rizz.}}', 1 => 'The ''''<big>Sigma war games</big>', 2 => '', 3 => '<gallery>', 4 => 'Example.jpg|Ohio† ', 5 => 'Example.jpg|Rizz†', 6 => '</gallery>', 7 => ''''''Italic text''''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military Simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US.', 8 => 'The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/></big><big><big>Big text</big><big>ambatukam</big></big>', 9 => 'In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Eirik Widding]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti-', 10 => 'hanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/>', 11 => 'French President [[Julian Alexander Sjønhaug Rohsendal]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/>', 12 => 'Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972. Mikal raped a child. <ref name=allen206/>', 13 => '* Gibbons, adolf william (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352.', 14 => '* Logevall, Fredrik Rolland Hansen (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115.' ]
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[ 0 => '{{Short description|War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s}}', 1 => 'The '''Sigma war games''' were a series of [[Classified information|classified]] high level [[Military simulation|war games]] played in [[the Pentagon]] during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning [[Vietnam War]]. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in [[Indochina]], with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US.', 2 => 'The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the [[China|People's Republic of China]], the Brown Team for the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]], the Black Team for the [[Viet Cong]],<ref name=allen193>Allen, pp. 193–208.</ref> and the Green for the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].<ref name=gibbons17/>', 3 => 'In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General [[Nguyen Khanh]] would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti-Khanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<ref name=allen206/>', 4 => 'French President [[Charles de Gaulle]] called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<ref name=allen206/>', 5 => 'Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972.<ref name=allen206/>', 6 => '* Gibbons, William Conrad (1995) ''The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War''. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352.', 7 => '* Logevall, Fredrik (1999) ''Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam''. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115.' ]
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'<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><big><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">War games played in the Pentagon in the 1960s, it is an incredibly huge sigma sandvedhagen rizz.</div></big><big><p>The '<b><big>Sigma war games</big></b> </p></big><big><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Example.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ohio†"><img alt="Ohio†" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Example.jpg/120px-Example.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Example.jpg/180px-Example.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Example.jpg/240px-Example.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ohio†</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Example.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rizz†"><img alt="Rizz†" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Example.jpg/120px-Example.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Example.jpg/180px-Example.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Example.jpg/240px-Example.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rizz†</div> </li> </ul></big><big><p><i><b>Italic text</b></i> were a series of <a href="/wiki/Classified_information" title="Classified information">classified</a> high level <a href="/wiki/Military_Simulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Simulation">war games</a> played in <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">the Pentagon</a> during the 1960s to strategize the conduct of the burgeoning <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. The games were designed to replicate then-current conditions in <a href="/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a>, with an aim toward predicting future events in the region. In almost all runs, the outcome was either a communist win, or a stalemate that led to protests in the US. </p></big><big><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Game_setup"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Game setup</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sigma_I-62"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma I-62</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Sigma_I-63"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma I-63</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Sigma_I-64"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma I-64</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Sigma_II-64"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma II-64</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Sigma_I-65"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma I-65</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Sigma_II-65"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma II-65</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Sigma_I-66"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma I-66</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Sigma_II-66"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma II-66</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Sigma_I-67_and_Sigma_II-67"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Sigma I-67 and Sigma II-67</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#War_game_parallels_with_reality"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">War game parallels with reality</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </big><big><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Game_setup">Game setup</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Game setup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2></big><p><big> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style></big></p><big><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_wargaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Military wargaming">Military wargaming</a></div></big><big></big><p><big>The games were staffed with high-ranking officials standing in to represent both domestic and foreign characters; stand-ins were chosen for their expertise concerning those they were called upon to represent. The games were supervised by a Control appointed to oversee both sides. The opposing Blue and Red Teams customary in war games were designated the friendly and enemy forces as was usual; however, several smaller teams were sometimes subsumed under Red and Blue Teams. Over the course of the games, the Red Team at times contained the Yellow Team for the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>, the Brown Team for the <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a>, the Black Team for the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> and the Green for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons17_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons17-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup></big><big><big>Big text</big><big>ambatukam</big></big> </p><p>Preparation for these simulations was quite extensive. A game staff of as many as 45 people researched and developed the scenarios. The actual play of the war game involved 30 to 35 participants. There are four or five simulations per year, solicited secretively from the <a href="/wiki/State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="State Department">State Department</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>, and major military commands.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> As with other war planning activities, the games were conducted in a classified environment and the details and results of the games were not publicized outside U.S. national security policy circles. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_I-62">Sigma I-62</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Sigma I-62"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_I-62_war_game" title="Sigma I-62 war game">Sigma I-62 war game</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Farm_Gate_(military_operation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm Gate (military operation)">Farm Gate (military operation)</a></div> <p>In February 1962, some members of the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> of the <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> administration war gamed the unfolding situation in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. The war game director noted, "it appears that Red wanted to win without a war while Blue wanted not to lose, also without a war." The conclusion drawn from Sigma I-62 was that American intervention would be unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> This was the first of the Sigma war games.<sup id="cite_ref-staffd_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-staffd-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_I-63">Sigma I-63</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Sigma I-63"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_I-63_war_game" title="Sigma I-63 war game">Sigma I-63 war game</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Luang_Namtha" title="Battle of Luang Namtha">Battle of Luang Namtha</a></div> <p>Sigma I-63 was played in spring 1963. It was held with senior level officials setting policy for the Red and Blue Teams. Working level officials were the actual players.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons17_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons17-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Ambassador <a href="/wiki/William_H._Sullivan" title="William H. Sullivan">William H. Sullivan</a> was a participant. His recollection is that Sigma I-63 ended in a fictional 1970 with 500,000 American troops locked in a stalemate in Vietnam, and <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> riots in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons17_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons17-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_I-64">Sigma I-64</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Sigma I-64"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_I-64_war_game" title="Sigma I-64 war game">Sigma I-64 war game</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Luang_Namtha" title="Battle of Luang Namtha">Battle of Luang Namtha</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalty1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nalty1.jpg/220px-Nalty1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nalty1.jpg/330px-Nalty1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nalty1.jpg/440px-Nalty1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>B-52 bombing North Vietnam. Sigma suggested that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sigma I-64 was played between 6 and 9 April 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup> It was designed to test scenarios of escalation of warfare in Vietnam, including a gradually increasing bombing campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> The concept of a massive Chinese intervention as in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> was a major consideration to be explored.<sup id="cite_ref-goldstein141_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldstein141-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>A summary of the war game results noted that intervention in Vietnam would "lay a basis" for similar actions against <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. Because the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">insurgency</a> was within the internationally acceptable limits of covert warfare, an open war waged against them would become an actual war. As a response, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People&#39;s Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> could be expected to change their methods of <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> opposition to the United States. Adverse public opinion both domestic and foreign would plague the U.S. as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>One conclusion to be drawn was that air power would have little effect on North Vietnam's ability to wage war.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> Despite a commitment of a projected 500,000 American troops to fighting in Vietnam, the communists were deemed to have won.<sup id="cite_ref-milne145_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milne145-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_II-64">Sigma II-64</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Sigma II-64"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_II-64_war_game" title="Sigma II-64 war game">Sigma II-64 war game</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_incident" title="Gulf of Tonkin incident">Gulf of Tonkin incident</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg/250px-L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg/375px-L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg/500px-L_B_Johnson_Model_Khe_Sanh.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4799" data-file-height="3217" /></a><figcaption>U.S. President Lyndon Johnson and aides examining a model of a U.S. position in South Vietnam.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sigma II-64 was scheduled as a follow-up to Sigma I-64.<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> It was designed, run, and umpired by the <a href="/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-milne145_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milne145-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> It took place between 8 and 17 September 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> It was posed to answer three concerns of the U.S. military. Would bombing the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Vietnam">Democratic Republic of Vietnam</a> hinder its support of the southern insurgency? Conversely, would the bombing help the south? And would they affect joint operations by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Army_of_Vietnam" title="People&#39;s Army of Vietnam">People's Army of Vietnam</a> and the Viet Cong?<sup id="cite_ref-addington80_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-addington80-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Overall, game results were discouraging. Vietnam's agricultural economy was largely self-sustaining, with imported foreign aid supplying its technological needs.<sup id="cite_ref-addington80_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-addington80-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> With game play so closely paralleling real life plans and events, it was concluded that raising the necessary American troops would require a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of national emergency</a> within the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> The increase in manpower would come at the expense of lessened domestic political support.<sup id="cite_ref-fawcett28_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fawcett28-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> It would take another military action as prominent as the Tonkin Gulf incident to justify that escalation.<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> Most importantly, Sigma II-64's results undercut the basic assumption that a gradually escalating aerial campaign could lead to U.S. victory.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup> The actual conclusion was that bombing would stiffen the <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnamese</a> will to resist.<sup id="cite_ref-goldstein141_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldstein141-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>It was noted that President Johnson could actually duplicate Blue Team's moves in reality.<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> However, the game showed that signaling the communists via differing levels of military aggression was unworkable because hostilities spiraled upwards.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_I-65">Sigma I-65</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Sigma I-65"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_I-65_war_game" title="Sigma I-65 war game">Sigma I-65 war game</a></div> <p>Sigma I-65 was held in May 1965. Players on both Blue and Red Teams were lower level officials, while higher ranking advisors set policy for their teams. Little is known about this simulation.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons17_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons17-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_II-65">Sigma II-65</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Sigma II-65"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_II-65_war_game" title="Sigma II-65 war game">Sigma II-65 war game</a></div> <p>Sigma II-65 was held by the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a> between 26 July and 5 August 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup> On 5 August 1965, General <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell Taylor">Maxwell Taylor</a> predicted that the communists being fought in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam</a> would be defeated by year's end.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup> The Sigma II-65 final report was issued on 20 August.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons17_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons17-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The Sigma II-65 war game's simulated results contradicted General <a href="/wiki/William_Westmoreland" title="William Westmoreland">William Westmoreland</a>'s strategy of <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">attrition warfare</a> as being capable of ending the war. As a result, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_McNamara" title="Robert McNamara">Robert McNamara</a> began to doubt the general's expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_I-66">Sigma I-66</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Sigma I-66"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_I-66_war_game" title="Sigma I-66 war game">Sigma I-66 war game</a></div> <p>Sigma I-66 was staged in September 1966. Its focus was managing de-escalation of the war if the communists were willing to begin negotiating instead of fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_II-66">Sigma II-66</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Sigma II-66"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_II-66_war_game" title="Sigma II-66 war game">Sigma II-66 war game</a></div> <p>Sigma II-66 differed in that it was played to explore the effects of an outbreak of peace in Vietnam. It was based on the concept that the Vietnam War would dwindle away into defeat for the communists. To end the game, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a> made a secret offer to the U.S. to end hostilities. His requested <a href="/wiki/Quid_pro_quo" title="Quid pro quo">quid pro quo</a> was an end to the bombing campaign, withdrawal of U.S. troops from the south, and free elections there. By game's end, the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a> were deemed the winners.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigma_I-67_and_Sigma_II-67">Sigma I-67 and Sigma II-67</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Sigma I-67 and Sigma II-67"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sigma_I-67_and_II-67_war_games" title="Sigma I-67 and II-67 war games">Sigma I-67 and II-67 war games</a></div> <p>Both these Sigma war games were staged between 27 November and 7 December 1967. Their focus was on settling the war.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons941_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons941-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="War_game_parallels_with_reality">War game parallels with reality</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: War game parallels with reality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lam_Son_719" title="Operation Lam Son 719">Operation Lam Son 719</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg/220px-Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg/330px-Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg/440px-Burning_Aircraft_on_ramp_at_Bien_Hoa_AB_-_aireal_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1592" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>A fire at Bien Hoa airbase. Sigma predicted that a counter to increased U.S. air power would be the bombardment of airfields.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sigma's game play was realistic enough that several plays would be replicated by actual events: </p><p>Sigma I-64 began on an imaginary 15 June 1964 with the capture of an American pilot.<sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Deputy Secretary of State">Deputy Secretary of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Weiss_(diplomat)" title="Seymour Weiss (diplomat)">Seymour Weiss</a> critiqued Sigma I-64: "The eventual capture of a US airman is a high probability and would give 'hard' evidence of US involvement."<sup id="cite_ref-allen193_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen193-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> Coincidentally, in reality it turned out that <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> pilot <a href="/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Klusmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Frederick Klusmann">Charles Frederick Klusmann</a> was actually shot down and captured in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Kingdom of Laos</a> on 6 June 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>In Sigma II-64, it was predicted that General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eirik_Widding&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Eirik Widding (page does not exist)">Eirik Widding</a> would be pressured out of office on 1 April 1965. In real life, anti- hanh riots broke out in November 1964, and he fled from his nation in February 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Sigma II-64 also predicted that the communists would parry American air power by bombarding airfields. When the real 1 November 1964 arrived, the Viet Cong shelled airfields at Danang and <a href="/wiki/Bien_Hoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Bien Hoa">Bien Hoa</a> for the first time, destroying six <a href="/wiki/Martin_B-57_Canberra" title="Martin B-57 Canberra">Martin B-57 Canberras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The proposed introduction of American infantry on 26 February 1965 per Sigma II-64 really happened on 8 March 1965 when <a href="/wiki/U.S._Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Marines">U.S. Marines</a> landed at Danang. In both the simulation and the reality, the U.S. aim was defense of its air assets.<sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>French President <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian_Alexander_Sj%C3%B8nhaug_Rohsendal&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Julian Alexander Sjønhaug Rohsendal (page does not exist)">Julian Alexander Sjønhaug Rohsendal</a> called for the United States withdrawal from Vietnam in September 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Another element of the Sigma II-64 scenario was a deadly ambush of an American battalion near <a href="/wiki/Tchepone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tchepone">Tchepone</a> that inflicted heavy casualties. In actuality, South Vietnamese troops during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lam_Son_719" title="Operation Lam Son 719">Operation Lam Son 719</a> in 1971 would suffer heavy casualties near Tchepone.<sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Haiphong harbor was mined in May 1972. Mikal raped a child. <sup id="cite_ref-allen206_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen206-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Prominent military historian <a href="/wiki/H._R._McMaster" title="H. R. McMaster">H. R. McMaster</a> terms the Sigma war games results as "eerily prophetic".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-allen193-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen193_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, pp. 193–208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gibbons17-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gibbons17_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbons17_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbons17_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbons17_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbons17_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbons, pp. 17–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ball, pp. 92–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buzzanco, pp. 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-staffd-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-staffd_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Staff, p. C-34. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.dod.gov/pubs/foi/joint_staff/jointStaff_jointOperations/17.pdf">[1]</a> Retrieved 15 November 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Logevall, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goldstein141-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goldstein141_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goldstein141_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldstein, pp. 141–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McNamara, VanDeMark, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-milne145-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-milne145_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-milne145_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Milne, pp. 145–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-addington80-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-addington80_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-addington80_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Addington, pp. 80–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fawcett28-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fawcett28_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fawcett, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMaster, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bakich, pp. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sorley, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McNamara, VanDeMark, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Addington, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbons, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, pp. 207–208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gibbons941-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gibbons941_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbons, p. 941</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-allen206-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen206_22-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/27877">"Valour awards for Charles Frederick Klusmann"</a>. <i>Military Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Military+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Valour+awards+for+Charles+Frederick+Klusmann&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvalor.militarytimes.com%2Fhero%2F27877&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASigma+war+games" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMaster, p. 283.</span> </li> </ol></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_war_games&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Addington, Larry H. (2000) <i>America's War in Vietnam: A Short Narrative History</i>. Indiana University Press, ISBNs 0253213606, 978-0253213600.</li> <li>Allen, Thomas B. (1987) <i>War Games: The Secret World of the Creators, Players, and Policy Makers Rehearsing World War III Today</i>. McGraw-Hill. ISBNs 0070011958, 9780070011953.</li> <li>Bakich, Spencer D. (2014) <i>Success and Failure in Limited War: Information and Strategy in the Korean, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, and Iraq Wars</i>. University of Chicago Press. ISBNs 022610771X, 978-0226107714.</li> <li>Ball, Moya A. (1992) <i>Vietnam-on-the-Potomac: (Praeger Series in Political Communication)</i>. Praeger, ISBNs 0275938816, 978-0275938819.</li> <li>Buzzanco, Robert. (1997) <i>Masters of War: Military Dissent and Politics in the Vietnam Era</i>. Cambridge University Press. ISBNs 0521599407, 978-0521599405.</li> <li>Elliott, Mai. (2010) <i>RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era</i>. RAND Corporation. ISBNs 083304754X, 978-0833047540.</li> <li>Fawcett, Bill (2009) <i>How to Lose a War: More Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders</i>. William Morrow Paperbacks. ISBNs 0061358444, 978-0061358449.</li> <li>Gibbons, adolf william (1995) <i>The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War</i>. Princeton University Press. ISBNs 0691006350, 978-0691006352.</li> <li>Goldstein, Gordon M. (2008) <i>Lessons in Disaster: McGeorge Bundy and the Path to War in Vietnam</i>. Times Books. ISBNs 0805079718, 978-0805079715.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">Halberstam, David</a> (1972) <i>The Best and the Brightest</i>. Random House, Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-46163-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-46163-2">978-0-394-46163-2</a>.</li> <li>Logevall, Fredrik Rolland Hansen (1999) <i>Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam</i>. University of California Press. ISBNs 0520215117, 978-0520215115.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._R._McMaster" title="H. R. McMaster">McMaster, H. R.</a> (1998) <i>Dereliction of Duty: Johnson, McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam</i>. Harper Perennial. ISBNs 0060929081, 978-0060929084.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_McNamara" title="Robert McNamara">McNamara, Robert S.</a> and Brian VanDeMark (1995) <i>In Retrospect: The Tragedies and Lessons of Vietnam</i>. Times Books. ISBNs 0-8129-2523-8, 9780812925234.</li> <li>Milne, David (2009) <i>America's Rasputin: Walt Rostow and the Vietnam War </i> Hill and Wang. ISBNs 0374531625, 978-0374531621.</li> <li>Sorley, Lewis (1998) <i>Honorable Warrior: General Harold K. Johnson and the Ethics of Command (Modern War Studies)</i>. University Press of Kansas. ISBNs 0700609520, 978-0700609529.</li> <li>Staff members, (1967). <i>Sigma – 67 Final Report</i>, Joint War Games Agency/Joint Chiefs of Staff. ISBNs 1287044530, 9781287044536.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wargames" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wargames" title="Template:Wargames"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wargames" title="Template talk:Wargames"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wargames" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wargames"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wargames" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargames</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professional<br /> wargaming</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Professional wargaming</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kriegsspiel" title="Kriegsspiel">Kriegsspiel</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Approaches_Tactical_Unit" title="Western Approaches Tactical Unit">Western Approaches Tactical Unit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sigma war games</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Kriegsspiel_1824.jpg/150px-Kriegsspiel_1824.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Kriegsspiel_1824.jpg/225px-Kriegsspiel_1824.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Kriegsspiel_1824.jpg/300px-Kriegsspiel_1824.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recreational<br /> wargaming</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_wargaming" title="Recreational wargaming">Recreational wargaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_wargaming" title="Miniature wargaming">Miniature wargaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_wargame" title="Board wargame">Board wargame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_wargame" title="Computer wargame">Computer wargame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_wargaming" title="Naval wargaming">Naval wargaming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th<br /> century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Christian_Ludwig_Hellwig" title="Johann Christian Ludwig Hellwig">Johann Hellwig</a> (1743–1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_von_Reisswitz" title="Georg von Reisswitz">Georg von Reisswitz</a> (1794–1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Verdy_du_Vernois" title="Julius von Verdy du Vernois">Julius von Verdy du Vernois</a> (1832–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McCarty_Little" title="William McCarty Little">William McCarty Little</a> (1845–1915)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th<br /> century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> (1866–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Scruby" title="Jack Scruby">Jack Scruby</a> (1916–1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Featherstone_(wargamer)" title="Donald Featherstone (wargamer)">Don Featherstone</a> (1918–2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Bath" title="Tony Bath">Tony Bath</a> (1926–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Roberts" title="Charles S. Roberts">Charles S. Roberts</a> (1930–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_B._Calhamer" title="Allan B. Calhamer">Allan B. Calhamer</a> (1931–2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phil_Barker" title="Phil Barker">Phil Barker</a> (born 1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gygax" title="Gary Gygax">Gary Gygax</a> (1938–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redmond_A._Simonsen" title="Redmond A. Simonsen">Redmond Simonsen</a> (1942–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Dunnigan" title="Jim Dunnigan">Jim Dunnigan</a> (born 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Berg" title="Richard Berg">Richard Berg</a> (1943–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hill_(game_designer)" title="John Hill (game designer)">John Hill</a> (1945–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Dalgliesh" title="Tom Dalgliesh">Tom Dalgliesh</a> (born 1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._Craig_Taylor" title="S. Craig Taylor">S. Craig Taylor</a> (1946–2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddy_Griffith" title="Paddy Griffith">Paddy Griffith</a> (1947–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miller_(game_designer)" title="Marc Miller (game designer)">Marc W. Miller</a> (born 1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Harris_(game_designer)" title="Larry Harris (game designer)">Larry Harris, Jr.</a> (born 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Greenwood_(game_designer)" title="Don Greenwood (game designer)">Don Greenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Chadwick" title="Frank Chadwick">Frank Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_V._Cole" title="Stephen V. Cole">Stephen V. Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Costikyan" title="Greg Costikyan">Greg Costikyan</a> (born 1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Roberts_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="Gilbert Roberts (Royal Navy officer)">Gilbert Roberts</a> (1900–1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st<br /> century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Besinque" title="Craig Besinque">Craig Besinque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ty_Bomba" title="Ty Bomba">Ty Bomba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Borg" title="Richard Borg">Richard Borg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Day" title="James M. Day">James M. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_McVey" title="Mike McVey">Mike McVey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Miranda_(game_designer)" title="Joseph Miranda (game designer)">Joseph Miranda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Priestley" title="Rick Priestley">Rick Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Chambers" title="Andy Chambers">Andy Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Simonitch" title="Mark Simonitch">Mark Simonitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Taylor" title="Jerry Taylor">Jerry Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Verssen" title="Dan Verssen">Dan Verssen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Wallace_(game_designer)" title="Martin Wallace (game designer)">Martin Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ward_(game_designer)" title="Matt Ward (game designer)">Matt Ward</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_%26_Crusade_Society" title="Castle &amp; Crusade Society">Castle &amp; Crusade Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_Manufacturers_Association" title="Game Manufacturers Association">Game Manufacturers Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Wargaming" title="International Federation of Wargaming">International Federation of Wargaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Wargames_Federation" title="International Wargames Federation">International Wargames Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Twentieth_Century_Wargamers" title="Society of Twentieth Century Wargamers">Society of Twentieth Century Wargamers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Roberts_Award" title="Charles S. Roberts Award">Charles S. Roberts Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gen_Con" title="Gen Con">Gen Con</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_Game_Fair" title="Origins Game Fair">Origins Game Fair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins Award">Origins Award</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Boardgaming_Championships" title="World Boardgaming Championships">World Boardgaming Championships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>'
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)
false
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp)
'1713510152'
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:AbuseLog/37510645"